Warfare Articles

After defeating Darius III at the battle of Issus in November 333 BC, Alexander marched his army (about 35,000-40,000 strong) into Phoenicia, where he received the capitulation of Byblus and Sidon. Tyrian envoys met with Alexander whilst he was on the march, declaring their intent to honour his wishes. Alexander's request was simple: he wished... [continue reading]

Tacitus (full name, Publius Gaius Cornelius Tacitus, ca. 56 – ca. 117 CE) was a Roman Senator and an important historian of the Roman Empire. In the following passages Tacitus gives an account of the Iceni Queen Boudicca’s revolt against Rome, 60-61 CE. Chapter 31 (Causes of Boudicca’s Revolt)Prasutagus, the late king of the Icenians... [continue reading]

The heart of the original Assyrian civilization was located off the western coast of the Tigris River in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). At its height, the Assyrian empire stretched far and wide, encompassing several territories and uniting the Near Eastern region for the very first time. This included territories in modern Iran, Egypt, Kuwait, Turkey, Israel... [continue reading]

Chaeronea is the site of the famous Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE) Phillip II of Macedon’s decisive defeat of the Greek city-states. At Chaeronea in Boeotia (north of Corinth) Phillip and his allies from Thessaly, Epirus, Aetolia, Northern Phocis and Locrian defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes. Phillip commanded the right wing while... [continue reading]

The Battle of Colmar (58 BCE): one of the first battles of the Gallic War, in which Caesar defeated an army led by the Germanic leader Ariovistus. In 58, Julius Caesar had invaded Central Gaul. The pretext had been the plan of the Helvetians to migrate to Aquitania, something that the Roman general considered unacceptable. After he had defeated... [continue reading]

After securing the eastern Mediterranean seaboard and Egypt, Alexander pushed east into Mesopotamia with the intention of bringing Darius to battle. After crossing the Euphrates river unopposed, he marched his army eastward along the foothills of the Armenian mountains before crossing the Tigris. Once across the Tigris, Macedonian mounted scouts reported... [continue reading]

One of the most effective and enduring military formations in ancient warfare was that of the Greek Phalanx. The age of the Phalanx may be traced back to Sumeria in the 25th century BCE, through Egypt, and finally appearing in Greek literature through Homer in the 8th century BCE (and, since, has been generally associated with Greek warfare strategy, the... [continue reading]

The Poem of Pentaur is the official Egyptian record (along with The Bulletin) of the military victory of Ramesses II (also known as Ramesses The Great) over the Hittite King Muwatalli II at the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE (in modern-day Syria). So proud was Ramesses of this campaign that he had the poem, which details his personal... [continue reading]

Ramesses II (known as Ramesses The Great) ruled Egypt for 67 years in the 12th century BCE and, today, the Egyptian landscape still bears testimony to the prosperity of his reign in the many temples and monuments he had built in honor of his conquests and accomplishments. Among his greatest moments as Pharaoh, however, is not an act of war but one of peace... [continue reading]

The Second Punic War (218-202 BCE) began when the Carthaginian general Hannibal attacked the city of Saguntum, a Roman ally, reached its height with the Carthaginian victory at Cannae (216) and ended with the Battle of Zama. At Zama, in North Africa, fifty miles south of the city of Carthage, the Roman general Scipio Africanus met Hannibal’s forces... [continue reading]